What does a mastering engineer need?

A mastering engineer makes the final adjustments to audio material so that it is optimised for most playback scenarios. Fundamentally, a mastering engineer needs an accurate and familiar place to listen to audio content and a way to process audio such that the necessary adjustments can be made to produce the master. In this discussion we will imagine the simplest mastering setup, utilising modern digital technologies. Of course a mastering engineer may work in a complex and equipment-heavy studio but the basis of any studio is an accurate monitoring system and some way to process audio.

Monitoring

There are a few things to consider here; why do you call it a system and what’s in this system? and, what is accurate? We refer to a monitoring system because we are talking about the combination of equipment that allows the information in the source file (.WAV audio file, for example) to reach the mastering engineer’s ear and be perceived as sound. The system is greater than simply a pair of speakers or headphones. In the most basic, modern scenario the monitoring system would be the computer (where the digital music file is sitting), the digital to analog converter (that converters the information in the digital file to an electrical signal), the powered speaker (which converts the electrical signal to acoustic energy), and the listening environment (the room your in, filled with air, that transfers the acoustic energy to the listener). These elements are working together to present the auditory experience to the mastering engineer, and all these elements have a role to play in the accuracy of playback. 

The more accurately this monitoring system reproduces audio material the more confident the engineer will be that the work they are doing will be of benefit to the mastering project. But what do we mean by accuracy? There is perhaps a theoretical definition in which if you could record a performance with 100% accuracy and then play that back over the monitoring system the resulting experience would be sonically indiscernible from the original event. In literal terms this is near impossible to achieve and nearly impossible to test, somewhat reinforcing the impossibility of the completely accurate monitoring system. Luckily, the impossibility of this goal of accuracy has not prevented great development in monitoring technology and there are many ways to achieve a great system that will allow you to produce great masters. A more realistic goal for a monitoring system could be that when the digital source file serves up information that instructs the system to produce a certain frequency, at a certain amplitude, and at a specific time, that same set of parameters are perceived by the listener. The closer your monitoring system can be to interpreting and carrying out the instructions of the source file the greater accuracy we can ascribe to this system.

So, the monitoring system allows the mastering engineer to hear music as close as possible to the instructions that the source file sets out and every element along the system plays a role in influencing the accuracy of this information translation. This begs the question, can anyone with the best/most accurate monitoring system master a recording to the highest degree? Maybe, if they really got to know that monitoring system. Which brings up another important point, knowing the monitoring system.

Knowing their monitoring system is one thing mastering engineers do really well, they listen to the same monitoring system day in and day out for many years. They build up a detailed mental sonic imprint of how audio material is presented on that system. Whilst it doesn’t sidestep the need for accurate monitoring, it does take an accurate system that bit further — to where that small bump at 200Hz, for example, doesn’t prevent us from making a great master because we’re aware of it and accomodate it, intuitively. To summarise, the mastering engineer looks to put together the most accurate monitoring system they can and then gets to know that system thoroughly, through years of listening.

Processing

The second thing a mastering engineer requires is a way to process audio material. If you’re working with digital audio files the simplest way to apply processing to them is by hosting the files in a Digital Audio Workstation (DAW) and using software (known as plug-ins) to run within this DAW and process the digital file. You can use typical DAW software to master a digital file, such as Pro Tools, Logic Pro, Studio One, and Reaper (there are many more). There are some DAWs that are designed specifically for mastering and they offer some additional feature and ease of mastering workflow that the typical DAWs do not. Mastering focused DAWs include Wavelab, Sadie, and Sequoia.

Audio can also be processed in the analog domain, in which the electrical signal which generated the audio is passed through a hardware unit and the output of the hardware is recorded back into the computer. If you’re working with digital files you’ll still need some kind of DAW or software player and a digital to analog converter to make this happen and you’ll also need an analog to digital converter on the recording side of the unit. Audio processing, whether it be analog or digital is a dense subject, so we will leave it for a future blog post.

So, what does a mastering engineer need? A way to accurately hear the audio (a monitoring system), and way to process the music (a computer and DAW). Being really familiar with your monitoring system is key, and having a DAW you’re comfortable using will make the mastering process smooth.

How much does a mastering engineer cost?

Mastering is not a one-size-fits-all process, in the sense that every project is unique and every mastering engineer has their own take on how a given audio project should be mastered. Furthermore, every mastering engineer is working with a different level of experience and specialisation, and from different studios. This all points to the cost of mastering being based on a number of factors. These factors may include project scope, delivery time, experience and status, and equipment and facilities. Below is some discussion about the factors affecting the cost of mastering:

Project scope — A music mastering project might be a single, an EP, an album, a double album, or perhaps a remaster of an entire bands catalogue (at the extreme). Though the underlying goal of a mastering engineer remains the same regardless of the project scope, the complexity and duration of the project is governed by its scope. On the more complex end, an album that was recorded over five years, across ten different studios and a bedroom might take a little more consideration when mastering to get the songs to sit on the same album. On the shorter end, perhaps a 3-minute single that sounds incredible already, and the mastering engineer just makes the slightest of adjustments and adds metadata. When you discuss your project with a mastering engineer and the project scope becomes apparent this will influence the quoted price.

Delivery time — As with many services if you want things quicker you tend to pay a premium. A mastering engineer can work quite quickly compared to a mixing engineer, or a recording engineer due to the nature of the task. But, we are dealing with music, a medium that has duration, and thus there is a minimum time that’s required to achieve a good result. A common scenario might be an EP master. If you give a mastering engineer a deadline that’s a month or two away, then all is well and that engineer will slot the EP into their schedule. On the other hand, if you want it done in 24 hours that’s going to require a bit of overtime, or a schedule adjustment from the mastering engineer, and most engineers will pass this cost on to the client. Some mastering engineers do advertise a ‘rush’ mastering rate for projects on the timescale of hours or days.

Experience and status — Over a career a mastering engineer develops elite skills, and their ability to provide value to your audio project increases. Furthermore, the mastering engineer might become the go-to person for a given sound or type of audio project – holding some special status in the industry. This kind of specialised, elite skillset, and guarantee of quality attracts a premium. Therefore, you may pay less for a first year mastering engineer, and you may pay a great deal more for a mastering engineer with 20 years experience and four Grammys to their name.

Equipment and facilities — In symbiosis with the experience and status factor, some mastering engineers work in huge spaces with hundreds of thousands of dollars of equipment, property overheads, and employees. Others, are one-person operations perhaps simply with a laptop, digital to analog converter, and pair of headphones. Both ends of this spectrum have the potential to make a great master, but one of these mastering engineers is going to have a ‘cost price’ that is way higher than the other and this will be reflected in their mastering rate.

In Summary

To get the best value for money make a self assessment of your project before putting it forward to a mastering engineer. Consider questions like: What is the scope of the project? When is the deadline for the master? Is your audience for your music going to appreciate the extra sonic qualities a top-end mastering engineer will provide?

Then get in contact with a few mastering engineers and get a few quotes. Then you can assess the value of these quotes in relation to your project and your desired outcome.

“Yes, but…how much does a mastering engineer cost?”

For a piece of music under 5 minutes in length, expect to pay somewhere between $100 and AUD $500 [USD $80 – $360]. Below $100 I’d say the results may be unpredictable, perhaps amazing value, or maybe hit or miss; over $100 stable and professional; and, approaching $500 you’re talking to big name mastering engineers. Undoubtably, you could pay less that $100 or more than $500, but somewhere in that range is common and would allow you to find a mastering engineer that’s a good fit for your project.

Who is the best mastering engineer?

There are many fantastic mastering engineers in the world! When we discuss mastering we are talking about art, sound and music, and so there is no real framework to decide who “the best” might be. However the field does have prominent practitioners who have carved out a space for themselves through long careers, groundbreaking albums, adoption or development of state of the art technology, or great educational initiatives.

So, here are five excellent mastering engineers that are prominent and well established in the industry today (presented in alphabetical order). All have their unique approach, check out the recommended recordings for a sense of their work, and follow the links for more information.

Heba Kadry — Kadry is a Brooklyn, NY-based mastering engineer working on a wide range of music that often leans towards boundary pushing indie artists, her discography almost seems like the catalogue of an adventurously and forward looking record label. Kadry notes that she only works on music that she really likes, and I’d suggest this approach is the best way to build an amazing and unique discography, and it certainly amplifies the creative spirit in these records. From cadre’s vast discography Gordi’s Our Two Skins (Jagjaguwar, Liberation, 2020) sounds great, and is Australian, so is recommend.

Bob Katz — Katz is a multi-Grammy Award winning mastering engineer working out of his Digital Domain mastering house in the USA. He is an active educator and spokes person for audio quality and high fidelity. His book Mastering Audio: The Art and the Science is a much lorded, in-depth look at the mastering process. Katz’s work spans multiple genres having worked with artists and ensembles around the world. One of my more recent favourite Katz masters is Huntsville’s For The Middle Class (Rune Grammofon, 2006).

Bob Ludwig — Ludwig is one of the biggest names in the business having mastered may chart topping records for artists like Led Zeppelin, David Bowie, Tori Amos, Bee Gees, Beck, Bruce Springsteen, Radiohead and so many more. He continues to master at the highest level out of his Gateway Mastering Studios in Portland, Maine. Radiohead’s In Rainbows (Radiohead, 2007) is a favourite.

Emily Lazar — Lazar is prominent in the billboard charts working with huge names like Coldplay, HAIM, and Jacob Collier. She founded The Lodge Mastering in Greenwich Village, NY and continues to work out of there. Lazar has a Grammy for work on Beck’s Colors (Capitol Records, 2019), and I love that album, so recommend checking it out.

Piper Payne — Payne is a prolific mastering engineer in Nashville, TN working under the Infrasonic Mastering banner. Payne is also highly active in education and in shaping the recording industry for the better, holding prominent roles in the Recording Academy and Audio Engineer Society. For some wild choral music listen to Volti’s This is What Happened (innova, 2017).

Katie Tavini — Tavini is a London-based mastering engineer and founder of the Weird Jungle mastering collective. She is currently dominating the indie band scene working with Bloc Party, Be Gregory, ARXX, and We Are Scientists. The Pillow Queens record Leave The Light On (Royal Mountain Records, 2022) is a winner from Tavini’s catalogue.

What does a mastering engineer do?

From a production perspective, creating a contemporary music release can be roughly divided into three main phases: recording, mixing, and mastering. In the recording phase individual instrument and vocal parts are recorded into a Digital Audio Workstation (or onto a physical format). In the mixing phase these parts are combined and balanced to the elicit the desired experience for the piece of audio. And finally, in the mastering phase the many songs of a project are brought together into a cohesive whole and considered in the context of the wider musical and commercial world. The mastering engineer is the person who finalises the audio, both sonically and in terms of format, utilising analog and digital audio signal processing to optimise audio for the maximum enjoyment of the listener, however they choose to listen.

Key to the mastering process is the engineers fresh perspective, trained ears, and specialised tools that ensure a level of professional quality and listener satisfaction in the finished audio media (music, podcast, film sound, etc.). To this end, a great mastering engineer possesses a wealth of accumulated listening experience that allows them to have a sense of how any recorded audio should be adjusted in order for it to translate to the end listener optimally. In most cases this listening experience has come from a true love of music and many years of listening to music of many genres and styles.

As a mastering engineer begins to work professionally they start to accrue thousands of dedicated listening hours in the same listening environment, which in the best cases is a professionally designed acoustic space with a very accurate monitoring system. Having heard a great deal of music and other audio in this same accurate listening environment a mastering engineer develops a mental sonic imprint of how certain program material, of varying genres and styles, could sound.

When a finished mix is presented to the mastering engineer, the mastering engineer considers this new piece of music in the context of this mental sonic imprint and makes subtle changes to sonic characteristics of the music such that it sits comfortably for them in their listening environment, and therefore comfortably in the wider world.

In making changes to the sonic characteristic of audio material the mastering engineer requires specialised signal processing tools, which can include:

Equalizer (EQ) — A filter that adjusts certain frequency bands by adding or removing energy from the specified frequencies. Perhaps the low frequencies of some piece of music are generally overpowering the midrange, a mastering engineer might use an EQ to reduce the level of the problematic low frequencies.

Compressor — A processor that sdjusts the dynamic range of a signal relative to the input level of the signal. A compressor begins to act on a signal when it reaches a given input threshold. When this threshold is crossed gain reduction is applied to the signal. A compressor also allows the mastering engineer to adjust the speed with which this gain reduction occurs, essentially shaping the envelope of transients above the threshold.

Limiter — A processor that prevents a signal from exceeding a specified level. Often in mastering this level is somewhere close to digital zero (-1.0 dBFS, for example). The limiter provides a safety that prevents levels going over the nominated ceiling (which if left would produce obviously poor playback artefacts) and also allows the average signal level to be increased above what would otherwise be possible. In the latter situation the overall level of the material is increased but anything hitting the ceiling is attenuated.

Although these signal processors are also used when recording or mixing the equalizers, compressors, and limiters in a mastering studio are often made to higher specifications and closer tolerances to facilitate very detailed work. Additional to the common mastering processors above, mastering engineers may employ processor made for harmonic saturation, and stereo width adjustment, and in the majority of cases some combination of the processors listed is used. Processing can occur in the digital and/or analog domain.

A mastering engineer is the final person to adjust the sonic characteristic of audio material and finalise digital audio files (or analog media) ready for production and/or digital distribution. This may include addition of metadata, the production of a DDP file (used to produce CD), or the cutting of a lacquer (which is needed to produce vinyl records).